by Iqbal Ahmad
Archaeology in Kashmir must rise above colonial religious labelling and return to scientific enquiry. The Zahenpora excavation offers a chance to reveal cultural layers and deepen understanding of early civilisations
Archaeology, in simple terms, means the scientific study of past human cultures through the analysis of their material remains, such as buildings, tools and artefacts. It aims to reconstruct past life and understand how human societies evolved and developed, including how societies adopted different faiths.
An archaeologist’s main concern should be the evolution and gradual development of human civilisation and different cultures. They should use a combination of surveying, excavation and the careful analysis of physical evidence to answer questions about human history, both pre-literate and historic.
In The Colonial Era
In the colonial era, archaeology was very much influenced by various religious and cultural thinking, and it was divided on religious lines with concepts such as the Buddhist period, Hindu period, Muslim period and Sikh period, or with nomenclature like Buddhist site, Hindu site, Muslim site, etc.
In fact, an archaeologist’s job is to identify, decipher and study the excavated layers and their exhumed artefacts, and not to collect data for any particular religious thought or declare the site according to religious finds. Undertaking any archaeological survey or excavation on religious lines is against the basic ethics of archaeology. This practice remained in vogue in the colonial era. As a result, several terracotta sites discovered during that era were referred to as Buddhist sites instead of terracotta sites. Heritage is always secular and belongs to mankind, not to any particular faith.
The most significant archaeological sites of Burzahom and Semthan, excavated during the seventies and eighties, are quite non-religious sites which have revealed habitational, economic, social and cultural data of prehistoric and historic Kashmir. These are well-known as secular habitational sites and have nothing to do with any religious beliefs and practices.
A New Project
If I am not wrong, nowadays it is for the first time in the archaeological history of Jammu and Kashmir that, after several decades of waiting, we will be watching the live demonstration of a systematic excavation being carried out in the mounds of Zahenpora.
The administrators, archaeologists and researchers are all set to uncover one more hidden chapter of our archaeological history from the mounds of Zahenpora Baramulla in north Kashmir. The long-awaited archaeological project has finally been taken up for execution, and well-planned systematic excavations are being resumed at this already surveyed archaeological site. The site is expected to lift the lid on one more period of cultural history.
The project is the outcome of a joint venture between the Department of Archives, Archaeology and Museums (DAAM) and Kashmir University’s Central Asian Studies (CCAS) department. In this regard, an MoU has already been signed by Kuldeep Krishan Sidha, Director Archives, Archaeology and Museums, and Prof Naseer Iqbal, the Registrar of the University of Kashmir.
Apart from uncovering any specific period of history, the excavations at the site shall also provide a platform to students and researchers to witness practically various aspects of scientific methods of excavation.
Important Project
Indeed, during the years, there have been a few trial digs and scientific clearances undertaken at a few sites, but it is the first time since the Burzahom (1960–1970) and Semthan (1978–83) excavations that a systematic and scientific excavation has been initiated at this site located in an archaeologically rich area of north Kashmir. The region has already revealed magnificent archaeological sites and artefacts of the Kushan era at Ushkar and Kanispora on the outskirts of Baramullah town.
The preliminary examination of the site is expected to reveal artefacts of the Kushan, pre-Kushan and post-Kushan eras, but before it is excavated and studied, we should not jump to conclusions and should not attribute it to the Buddhist faith or declare it a Buddhist site. Indeed, once it is properly investigated and studied, we can give it any proper name, but in terms of its timeline, not in terms of faith.
The Burzhama
In fact, during the post-Independence period, the first well-planned and systematic excavations were carried out at the plateau of Burzahom during 1960–70 AD. These excavations were undertaken by the Archaeological Survey of India under the supervision of TN Khazanchi.
The excavations revealed the transition from subterranean and ground-level housing features of the Neolithic people to the mud-brick structures of the Megalithic people. The large cache of tools and implements made of bone and stone found at the site was then taken to Delhi and housed in the strong rooms of ASI at the Purana Qila Museum.
Fortunately, the contributor in the year 2020 had a chance to have glimpses of this wonderful treasure as I figured in a two-member committee constituted by the government to prepare a list of the representative series of Burzahom artefacts to be displayed at the designated spaces of SPS Museum at Srinagar.
The bone and stone tools which I handled there in the strong room were amazing and spoke of very high craftsmanship which in no way looked of any Neolithic age. These are not tools but exquisite artefacts of any advanced civilisation, but these artefacts are scientifically dated and belong to the Neolithic age, which means even the Neolithic people of Kashmir were highly skilled. During my handling of a few of these tools, I observed their finish and softness; most of the artefacts still carried tags duly signed by TN Khazanchi.
These antiquities indicate that the prehistoric people of Burzahom were advanced and had established contact with Central Asia and South-West Asia, and had links with the Gangetic plains and peninsular India. The interaction of local and foreign influences is demonstrated by the art, architecture and customs shown by engravings on pottery and other artefacts.
The Semthan
After Burzahom, another systematic excavation was undertaken at Semthan Bijbehara during 1977–81. The site (anciently known as Chakradhara) is situated on a Karewa plateau on the left bank of the Jhelum River near the modern town of Bijbehara. It consists of several mounds, some reaching 18 metres in height, commanding a panoramic view of the valley.
The main archaeological work was conducted by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), with major excavations occurring between 1977 and 1981 and subsequent discoveries in later years. The site has revealed a continuous cultural sequence spanning from the pre-NBPW (Northern Black Polished Ware) period (around 700 BCE) up to medieval times (post-13th century CE). The site is crucial for bridging gaps in the region’s historical record and demonstrating external influences, including Hellenistic culture.
The most remarkable discoveries included ancient Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Punch-Marked coins, and terracotta artefacts of these periods.
Non-Religious Sites
The remarkable feature of Burzahom and Semthan excavations lies in the fact that these are non-religious sites which revealed habitational, economic, social and cultural data. These are known as secular sites and have nothing to do with religious beliefs and practices.
These were result-oriented excavations, which uncovered several ancient periods of Kashmir history, particularly the remains and artefacts of the Neolithic, Mauryan, Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Kushan eras.
Since then, things have changed, and unfortunately, turmoil soon enveloped the peaceful environment of this land. Security and law, and order became the main concern of the authorities. Still, micro-archaeological works continued, and little archaeological investigations, trial diggings and necessary conservation works also continued.
Five Decades Later
This time, it is after about five decades since any major archaeological excavation project has been undertaken by the government, aimed to uncover the mounds of Zahenpora. Since the site is learnt to have been explored during colonial times and its archaeological significance established, but it could not be excavated then due to unknown reasons, now the wait is over, and this archaeological site is being excavated on modern scientific lines.
Indeed, leaving the turmoil period aside, this land has a rich tradition of archaeological research and excavations. Systematic archaeological excavations have a long and interesting history, which evolved from the early 20th century and brought a revolutionary breakthrough in Indian archaeology, particularly in this part of the country. Earlier, Indian ancient and medieval history was mostly shadowed by mythical and folklore stories. Indian history has been made a mythological story rather than a historical account.
The European Interventions
The first archaeological research and excavations conducted on scientific bases by European archaeologists lifted the lid from treasure troves and brought to light the evidence of several hitherto unknown empires. For example, the archaeological, numismatic and epigraphic evidence of three major Hellenistic empires was encountered in the north-western parts of India. These included Indo-Greeks, Indo-Scythians and Indo-Parthians, now known in Indian history as Yavanas, Shakas and Pahlavas, which existed in the north-western parts of the Indian subcontinent, including parts of Jammu and Kashmir.
The updated archaeological and numismatic data made available by researchers revealed evidence of Hellenistic empires ruled by several Indo-Greek kings, Scythian kings and Parthian rulers. These rulers spanned circa the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE. Many of these kings are primarily known through their coins and epigraphs.
The first initiative in terms of this research was undertaken by several European experts, including Sir Alexander Cunningham, James Prinsep, CJ Rodgers, WR Whitehead and Sir Marc Aurel Stein. These experts not only explored the Indian cultural past but also identified, deciphered and conserved it for generations to come. They introduced the scientific investigation of archaeological sites and uncovered the hidden history of this country by introducing archaeological, numismatic and epigraphic research studies.
The result was that the difficult questions bearing on old studies were addressed well. The book Greeks in Bactria and India by local Indian historian NK Narain opened new phases of research in the Indian parts of the Greek occupation. Reputed numismatists like Dr David Macdowall, Dr PL Gupta, Michel Mitchiner and Osmund Bopearachchi, besides deciphering these coins, conducted systematic studies and documented their find-spots. It was because of these scientific researches that Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian history and chronology were established, and a rich trove about these ages was unearthed. More than thirty-three Bactrian-Greek and Indo-Greek rulers were identified to have ruled over the north-western parts of India (including parts of Punjab and Kashmir) during the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE. Taxila in Punjab and Semthan in Kashmir are major archaeological sites which revealed plenty of Indo-Greek and Indo-Scythian evidence.
The fresh studies and excavations of Zahenpora are also expected to unearth interesting evidence of this land’s cultural past and uncover one more archaeological treasure. But we should abstain from giving this site any religious name and should not jump to conclusions.
(The writer is a senior archaeologist and author. Ideas are personal.)
