by Iqbal Ahmad
It is due to these carefully conducted studies, grounded in scientific methodology, that the Greek, Scythian, and Parthian presence in the Indian subcontinent during the second and first centuries BCE was firmly established.
A Shift from Myth to Method
The systematic archaeological research that began in the early twentieth century marked a turning point in Indian historiography. Until then, the history of ancient and medieval India had remained largely obscured by myth and folklore. The past was often recounted through stories steeped in legend, rather than presented as a verifiable historical account.
The first scientific investigations, conducted primarily by European missionaries and scholars, began to uncover the historical foundations of India’s past. These efforts lifted the lid from centuries of obscurity and revealed evidence of empires that had long remained hidden. In particular, archaeological, numismatic, and epigraphic discoveries in the north-western parts of the Indian subcontinent, including regions that now fall within Jammu and Kashmir, brought to light the existence of three major Hellenistic powers. These were the Indo-Greeks, Indo-Scythians, and Indo-Parthians, known in Indian tradition as the Yavanas, Shakas, and Pahlavas.
The Evidence of Coin and Stone
Updated historical data provided by numismatic research revealed that these Hellenistic realms were governed by over thirty-three Greek kings, three Scythian rulers, and four Parthian sovereigns. Their reigns stretched from the second century BCE to the first century CE. Many of these kings are known almost exclusively through their coins, as contemporary records did not employ consistent methods of dating or enumeration.
The earliest significant strides in this research were taken by a group of European scholars. Among them were Sir Alexander Cunningham, James Prinsep, CJ Rodgers, WR Whitehead, and Sir Marc Aurel Stein. These figures did not merely explore India’s cultural heritage, but played a crucial role in identifying, deciphering, and preserving it. They introduced a scientific approach to investigating archaeological sites and helped replace myth with history by employing numismatic and epigraphic research methods.
This process of disentangling legend from fact presented a formidable challenge. India’s deeply rooted traditions of storytelling, myth, and folklore often clouded historical realities. In a conservative cultural context, supplanting mythology with documented history was neither simple nor widely welcomed. Local historians, accustomed to blending narrative with belief, seldom found this shift appealing.
Nevertheless, modern Indian historians gradually recognised the importance of these material sources and began to adopt similar approaches. By focusing on physical evidence rather than oral tradition, they sought to reconstruct the basic facts of the past with greater accuracy.
Foundations for Further Research
These endeavours helped address longstanding historical questions. The publication of Greeks in Bactria and India by Indian historian NK Narain opened new avenues for the study of Greek occupation in parts of India. Renowned numismatists such as Dr David MacDowall, Dr PL Gupta, Michel Mitchiner, and Osmund Bopearachchi not only deciphered numerous coins, but also documented their sites of discovery.
It is due to these carefully conducted studies, grounded in scientific methodology, that the Greek, Scythian, and Parthian presence in the Indian subcontinent during the second and first centuries BCE was firmly established. These scholars identified more than thirty-three Bactrian-Greek and Indo-Greek rulers who held sway over the north-western regions of the subcontinent.
New Discoveries and Expanding Research
As a result, difficult questions that had long challenged earlier studies were finally addressed with greater confidence. The book *Greeks in Bactria and India* by the Indian historian NK Narain introduced new phases of research into the Greek presence in parts of India. Renowned numismatists such as Dr David MacDowall, Dr P. L. Gupta, Michel Mitchiner, and Osmund Bopearachchi not only deciphered ancient coins but also carried out systematic studies and documented their sites of discovery. Through these scientific approaches, the occupation of the Indian subcontinent by Greek, Scythian, and Parthian powers during the second and first centuries BCE was firmly established. More than thirty-three Bactrian-Greek and Indo-Greek rulers were identified as having governed the north-western regions of India.
During my visits to Jammu and Kashmir’s oldest and largest museum in Srinagar, and through archaeological survey work across the region, I came across several noteworthy pieces of evidence pointing to the presence of ancient foreign tribes in this land. These included archaeological artefacts, ancient coins, and architectural influences.
At the Sri Pratap Singh Museum in Srinagar, I had ready access to its numismatic and archaeological collections, along with its manuscripts. I also examined several old administrative reports and travelogues written by European missionaries concerning the region’s archaeological and architectural heritage. In this historic museum, I encountered ancient silver and copper coins linked to the Seleucids, Greeks, Bactrian-Greeks, Indo-Greeks, Indo-Scythians, Indo-Parthians, Kushans, Romans, Byzantines, Kidaras, and Huns. The museum’s terracotta tiles and sculptures contained distinct features of Hellenistic art, which I studied with care.
Traces in Stone
On my archaeological travels, I observed the remains of monumental stone structures at Martand, Avantipura, and Narasthan in south Kashmir, as well as at Parihaspora, Pattan, and Bunyar in the north. These sites revealed skilled architectural features that bore striking similarities to Roman and Greek styles, especially in their scale and the finely finished quality of their columns. The resemblance in design and proportion suggested a deliberate imitation of classical architectural traditions, shaped by centuries of cross-cultural contact.
I studied the numismatic, archaeological, and architectural travelogues and reports of European missionaries, particularly those of Alexander Cunningham, W. H. Nicholls, Trebeck, Aurel Stein, Frederic Drew, and W. R. Lawrence. Their accounts included frequent references to external architectural influences on ancient monuments in Kashmir. These observations allowed me to develop a limited understanding of the architectural styles found in Kashmir’s ancient structures.
I also consulted several numismatic catalogues. These included collections from the British Museum, the Indian Museum, Kolkata, the Punjab Museum, Lahore, and a list of coins and medals at the Sri Pratap Singh Museum compiled by G. B. Bleazby. These sources assisted me in identifying and interpreting ancient coins attributed to the Romans, Byzantines, Seleucids, Greeks, Scythians, Parthians, and Kushans.
In 2000, I began documenting foreign archaeological traces in Kashmir and attempted to interpret these in the light of locally published works by established scholars. These included P. N. K. Bamzai’s *The History of Jammu and Kashmir*, G. M. D. Sofi’s *Kasheer*, and S. L. Shali’s *History and Archaeology Through the Ages*. My first written effort came in 2004, when I produced a small booklet titled *Greek Kashmir*, in which I documented a selection of silver coins attributed to the Greeks, Scythians, and Parthians.
Later, I wrote a brief paper titled Ancient Greeks in Kashmir, which was published in 2008 by Dr Vijay Sazawal on his blog, Kashmir Forum.
Gaps in the Literary Record
Literary sources for the Greek and Scythian presence in the subcontinent remain extremely scarce. There are no known written records from that period available to historians. However, early archaeologists and numismatists achieved considerable success in uncovering and analysing material remains. Through their studies, they reconstructed an account of the period that had long been missing from the historical chronicles of the region.
Historians searching for these ancient connections lacked the data needed to construct a reliable theory. It was the work of numismatists and archaeologists that eventually produced a more scientific account of Greek and Scythian activity in the subcontinent. As a result, a revised picture of early Indian history began to emerge.
Early Decipherers of the Coinage
The early scholars performed essential work in interpreting Greek and Scythian coins. These pieces were inscribed in Classical Greek and Kharosthi scripts, often bearing the names of their issuers and various religious symbols. These features provided numismatists with the clues necessary to interpret the coins. The task of deciphering these inscriptions and arranging the coins chronologically was not simple, but it was undertaken with remarkable expertise by European scholars.
Among those credited with establishing this tradition of numismatic analysis were James Prinsep, Alexander Cunningham, Mr E. Thomas, Lassen, Wilson, and Brown. Their contributions laid the foundation for subsequent scholarship.
Based on their findings, several coin monographs were produced by later writers. One of the most notable and earliest among these was by Von Sallet, whose sound judgement and technical expertise allowed him to correct several conclusions drawn by earlier researchers. The work of Mr James Fergusson and Professor Cowell also contributed significantly to this body of scholarship.
Continuing the Legacy
Today, a wide range of catalogues exists for Greek and Scythian coins. Most collections found in India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan have been transferred to Europe, where they are now documented and classified. The British Museum has published catalogues of Roman, Greek, and Scythian coins recovered from India and Afghanistan.
In South Asia, many museums also hold significant collections. The Kabul Museum, Peshawar Museum, Punjab Museum Lahore, Indian Museum Kolkata, and Kashmir Museum Srinagar all house valuable Greek, Scythian, and Parthian artefacts. Some of these collections have been published, although in many parts of India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, these coins remain unstudied.
Meanwhile, present-day archaeologists and numismatists continue the work of their predecessors. Their efforts have led to the recovery of new historical periods and the gradual development of a more comprehensive historiographical literature. These accounts now offer the public a deeper understanding of their regions and their pasts.
(The writer is a senior archaeologist and author. Views are personal.)
