by Iqbal Ahmad
While many scholars and authors have attempted to preserve these narratives in local versions, it was James Hilton Knowles who first brought them to the attention of the wider world. Through his documentation and publication efforts in the early nineteenth century, English readers were introduced to a body of stories that had, for centuries, remained confined to Kashmiri households.
Although Kashmir was never directly ruled by the British during the colonial period, their political and administrative influence over the region cannot be denied. The British engaged actively with local governance and showed interest in the region’s social and cultural life. They introduced administrative reforms and regularly appointed resident commissioners to oversee political affairs. Their residency in Jammu and Kashmir, located on the banks of the Jhelum near what is now Emporium Garden, served as their administrative base. The name Residency Road in Srinagar remains a trace of this legacy.
They established modern systems of education and healthcare, offering people access to contemporary schooling and medical services. British missionaries and travellers were encouraged to explore the region. These visitors ventured across Jammu, Kashmir, Ladakh, Gilgit and Baltistan, studying local culture, history, architecture and traditions.
It was the British who first undertook a serious study of Kashmir’s history and culture. They initiated archaeological and historical research, deciphered ancient scripts and translated old Sanskrit manuscripts, thereby introducing Kashmir’s historical legacy to the wider world. Among these scholars were Alexander Cunningham and Sir Marc Aurel Stein, whose pioneering work in archaeology and history is well documented.
A Forgotten Scholar of Folklore
However, there was another English scholar whose contributions remain relatively obscure. He is seldom mentioned, and little is known about his work in Kashmir, despite his significant efforts. Unlike many of his contemporaries, he blended seamlessly with the local population. Through his sharp intellect and deep curiosity, he grasped the intricacies of Kashmiri culture and traditions.
During his brief stay, he devoted himself to the study of folklore. He listened closely to local voices, collected oral traditions, and translated folk tales into English. His efforts resulted in the first major published collection of Kashmiri folk literature.
His name was James Hilton Knowles.
Knowles arrived in Kashmir in the late nineteenth century. He studied Kashmiri folklore in depth and wrote two important books on the region’s language and culture. He served as the first principal of the Tyndale Biscoe School in Kashmir from 1876 to 1880. His first book, published in 1888 in Bombay, compiled proverbs and sayings common across the region. His second book, published in London in 1893, presented around forty fables and over one hundred folk tales from Kashmir.
This was the first time any scholar had addressed this largely ignored subject. Knowles travelled across the region, meeting learned pandits and spiritual leaders to better understand Kashmiri language and its nuances. He also visited remote villages, where he lived among tenant farmers and gathered oral narratives directly from the people. His work represents an early and earnest attempt to preserve Kashmir’s folk traditions in written form.
The Missionary Who Listened
In the foreword to his book on Kashmiri folk tales, James Hilton Knowles reflected on the intimacy that his vocation allowed him with the people of the region. He wrote that the work of a missionary brought him into close and constant contact with the population, from whom, as he moved along in a boat, walked the paths, squatted in huts, or taught in schools, he had learned many things. His primary reason for collecting these tales, he stated, was to gain knowledge of Kashmiri, a language spoken rather than written. His secondary aim was to understand the thoughts and ways of the people.
He acknowledged that some tales were likely native to Kashmir, while others were adapted versions of popular stories from India and elsewhere, reshaped to reflect the language, thought patterns, and customs of the region. He observed that some stories resembled European folk tales, citing the example of “The Two Brothers,” which he compared to “St George and the Dragon.” He pointed out that several brief stories embedded within the longer narratives would be immediately recognisable as versions of tales told in France, Germany, Greece, Russia, and England.
A Foreign Eye on Kashmir’s Culture
Kashmir’s beauty and cultural wealth have long drawn the attention of foreign travellers, particularly Europeans. These visitors were not content with passive admiration. Many brought with them a curiosity of an intellectual kind and made significant contributions to the study of the region’s neglected cultural heritage. They were the first to interpret ancient Kashmiri texts and to engage with its archaeological, architectural, numismatic, and epigraphic traditions. Through their writing, they introduced this wealth to a wider world.
James Hilton Knowles played a central role in preserving Kashmir’s oral storytelling tradition. He compiled a wide selection of folk tales, many of which featured moral lessons, mythical creatures, clever animals, supernatural incidents, and representations of everyday life in the valley.
Kashmiri folk tales, broadly speaking, fall into two categories: indigenous and foreign. The indigenous stories originate in the region and reflect local experience. They involve native customs and characters. The foreign tales are largely drawn from Indian and Persian sources. They were translated into Kashmiri and often feature Persian characters and themes. Knowles made a similar classification in his collection.
Among the indigenous stories he recorded, two stand out for their imaginative detail and enduring appeal: the tales of Akanandun and Himal and Nagrai. Both are considered foundational narratives in the local oral tradition.
A Tale of Sacrifice
The story of Akanandun centres on a childless couple in Kashmir. A wandering yogi offers them a son on the condition that he will be returned to him after twelve years. The couple agrees and soon has a son, Akanandun, who brings them joy. When the promised time arrives, the yogi demands the boy’s return and insists he be prepared for a feast. The grieving parents comply. Eleven plates of food are laid out, and the queen is asked to summon the boy. To their astonishment, Akanandun reappears unharmed. The yogi vanishes, along with the food, leaving the family bewildered.
This narrative explores themes of longing, loyalty, sacrifice, and wonder. It was later adapted into Kashmiri verse by Samad Mir, the nineteenth-century mystic poet, who wove the tale into his Sufi compositions.
The Serpent and the Princess
Another story that Knowles included in his book is the well-known legend of Himal and Nagrai. It recounts the love between a human princess and a serpent prince. The tale exists in many versions and remains popular across the Kashmir Valley. Knowles’s rendering is considered among the most detailed and widely circulated.
According to Indian scholars, the earliest written version of the tale was produced by Maulvi Sadr-ud-Din in Persian, under the title Qissa-i Heemal va Arzun. Waliullah Mattu later translated the story into Kashmiri as a masnavi under the title Himal Negyray. In this version, Himal is the daughter of Balavir, from Balapora in Shopian, and Nagrai is a serpent-prince from Talpatal, the netherworld. Raised by a human pandit, Nagrai marries a serpent princess, then later weds the human princess, Himal.
The story ends in tragedy when Himal compels Nagrai to bathe in a bowl of milk, causing him to vanish back to Talpatal. Stricken with grief, she throws herself onto his funeral pyre. A spring in Safanaman, Shopian, still bears the name Hemaal Nagral, a reminder of the tale’s place in local memory.
Knowles noted that he had come across another version of the story, Himal and Nagaray, which he obtained from Pandit Hargopal Kaul. In this variation, Himal is portrayed as a Hindu devotee who falls in love with Nagrai, who is cast as a Muslim man. These variations, drawn from oral and written traditions, are preserved in Knowles’s work.
Preserving a Disappearing Voice
James Hilton Knowles did more than merely compile stories. He recorded voices that would otherwise have been lost. The folk tales he included in his book remain among the earliest written accounts of Kashmiri oral traditions. Many other curious narratives are also preserved in his collection, each a reflection of the beliefs, humour, fears, and hopes of a people often spoken for, but seldom heard.
In earlier times, when there were neither mass communication tools nor modern means of entertainment, storytelling served as the primary medium of connection and amusement, especially within families. During quiet evenings, grandparents would gather their grandchildren and narrate tales filled with wonder and mystery. These stories, often mythic and curious, offered more than diversion. They sharpened the minds of children and introduced them to values, beliefs, and the collective memory of their community. This practice was once a familiar feature of nearly every household.
With the expansion of multimedia, especially social media, the oral tradition of storytelling has faded. Today, those once-beloved tales survive only in the pages of forgotten books or in the memories of a dwindling number of elderly storytellers.
While many scholars and authors have attempted to preserve these narratives in local versions, it was James Hilton Knowles who first brought them to the attention of the wider world. Through his documentation and publication efforts in the early nineteenth century, English readers were introduced to a body of stories that had, for centuries, remained confined to Kashmiri households.
Knowles’s dedication to learning the language, understanding the customs, collecting the narratives, translating them, and preserving them in written form marked a significant cultural achievement. His work secured him a lasting place in the history of Kashmiri folk literature.
Although the oral practice of storytelling has largely vanished, its essence endures in written texts. In this respect, Knowles’s contribution remains vital. His effort ensured that the tradition would not vanish entirely but instead remain accessible to future generations.
(The writer is a senior archaeologist and author. Ideas are personal.)
