The debate on Islam and democracy has been a longstanding contentious issue, engaging the minds of Muslim thinkers for centuries. In his latest book, Kashmiri scholar Tauseef Ahmad Parray examines this complex and evolving discourse. Muhammad Nadeem reviews the book to understand the diverse perspectives and intellectual traditions shaping this critical debate.
Tauseef Ahmad Parray’s Islam and Democracy in the 21st Century (Oxford, 2023) provides an overview of the discourse surrounding Islam’s compatibility with democracy. He traces the evolution of this debate from the early 20th century to the present day, highlighting key thinkers, publications, and historical moments that have shaped the conversation.
The author contextualises the discourse within broader geopolitical shifts, from post-colonial nation-building to the aftermath of 9/11 and the Arab Spring. This historical framing demonstrates how the question of Islam and democracy has taken on new urgency and complexity in recent decades.
The book covers a wide range of scholarly perspectives from both Muslim and non-Muslim thinkers. It categorises the main approaches to the debate as those who see Islam and democracy as fundamentally incompatible, those advocating for a secular approach, and reformists who argue for reconciliation between Islamic principles and democratic values.
The book moves chronologically from 19th and 20th-century thinkers to contemporary voices. This approach allows readers to trace the evolution of ideas and arguments over time. The emphasis on South Asian thinkers like Muhammad Iqbal and Abul Kalam Azad expands the conversation beyond the oft-cited Middle Eastern context. This inclusion showcases the diversity of thought within the Muslim world on questions of governance and modernity.
Intersecting Ideals
While providing a substantive overview of democracy as a concept and exploring its relationship with Islam in the contemporary world, Parray begins by tracing the genesis from ancient Greece through the Enlightenment to modern times. It then turns to examining how democracy is conceptualised and debated within Islamic contexts.
One of the central themes is the multiplicity of interpretations of both democracy and Islam. Parray emphasises that democracy is an “essentially contested concept” with no universally accepted model. Similarly, he outlines various strands of contemporary Islamic thought, from secular to conservative to reformist. This sets the stage for exploring the diverse Muslim perspectives on democracy’s compatibility with Islam.
The book delves into the arguments made by Muslim reformists and modernists who seek to reconcile democratic principles with Islamic teachings. Parray highlights how these thinkers reinterpret key Islamic concepts like shura (consultation) and ijma (consensus) to align with democratic ideals. He also notes their emphasis on universal values like justice, equality, and human rights as being inherent to both Islam and democracy.
Parray’s frames the post-9/11 discourse on Islam and democracy as part of a broader narrative about Islam’s relationship with modernity and the West. The book provides insight into how Muslim intellectuals are grappling with these issues and seeking to articulate an “Islamic democracy.”
One of the book’s strengths lies in its comprehensive survey of key thinkers and arguments in the Islam-democracy discourse. It provides a solid foundation for understanding the complexity of this debate.
Tradition and Modernity
As part of the comprehensive exploration of key democratic concepts in Islamic political thought, the book examines shura (consultation), Khilafah (caliphate), ijma’ (consensus), ijtihad (independent reasoning), bay’ah (allegiance), maslaha (public interest), and the Constitution of Medina in detail. Presenting these concepts as potential foundations for reconciling Islam with modern democratic principles, the author highlights how classical Islamic political theory emphasised consultation, consensus-building, and limitations on rulers’ power. The discussion of shura is particularly extensive, examining its Quranic basis, implementation by early Muslim leaders, and modern interpretations equating it with democratic deliberation.
Parray’s analysis reveals the ongoing debate among Muslim thinkers on how to interpret and apply these traditional concepts in contemporary contexts. He notes efforts by modernist scholars to reframe ideas like shura and ijma’ as Islamic antecedents to representative democracy and popular sovereignty. Besides, the book touches on attempts to derive notions of constitutionalism, pluralism, and social contract theory from early Islamic precedents like the Medina Charter.
Classical Concepts, Contemporary Reinterpretations
The book examines the views of pioneering Muslim modernists from the Arab world on the compatibility between Islam and democracy in the 19th and early 20th centuries. It traces the intellectual lineage from Rifa’a al-Tahtawi through Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, Muhammad ‘Abduh, Rashid Rida, and Malek Bennabi.
Another key theme that emerges is the attempt by these thinkers to reconcile Islamic concepts with modern democratic ideals. Tahtawi, for instance, drew parallels between European notions of freedom and Islamic principles of justice, rights, consultation (shura), and equality. Afghani diagnosed the absence of justice and consultation as the main causes of decline in the Muslim world, advocating for a restricted form of government based on shura.
Abduh went further in equating Islamic concepts with Western democratic ideas – framing maslaha (public interest) as analogous to utility, shura as parliamentary democracy, and ijma (consensus) as public opinion. He argued for basing laws on the collective reason and interests of the people.
Rida built on Abduh’s ideas, confirming notions of democratic participation in Islam and rejecting arguments that religion opposes democracy. He asserted the Islamic roots of shura while proposing a system balancing religious and political authority.
Bennabi offered a more critical perspective, distinguishing between secular and Islamic democracy. He argued that Islam provides “genuine democracy” by synthesising political and social dimensions, in contrast to secular democracy which he saw as potentially oppressive.
A common thread is the invocation of early Islamic history, particularly the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, as an exemplar of democratic ideals. The thinkers also grappled with how to adapt Islamic principles to modernity without compromising core values.
South Asian Perspective
This book examines the views of influential figures like Muhammad Iqbal, Abul Kalam Azad, Syed Abul Ala Mawdudi, Fazlur Rahman, and others, tracing the evolution of thought around Islam and democracy in the region.
There was an attempt by these thinkers to chart a middle path between wholesale rejection and uncritical embrace of Western democratic concepts. Many sought to ground democratic principles in Islamic sources and traditions, particularly the Quranic concept of shura (consultation). This allowed them to advocate for representative governance and popular sovereignty while maintaining fidelity to Islamic precepts.
Iqbal’s notion of “spiritual democracy” stands out as an attempt to Islamise democratic ideals. By rooting democracy in the Islamic concept of tawhid (oneness of God), Iqbal argued for equality, solidarity, and freedom as essential Islamic values compatible with democratic governance. Yet he remained critical of Western secular democracy, seeing it as morally bankrupt.
Parray highlights tensions between traditionalist and modernist approaches. While modernists like Azad more readily embraced democratic concepts, traditionalists sought to limit democratic principles within the bounds of Islamic law. Mawdudi’s concept of “theo-democracy” exemplifies this attempt to synthesise Islamic and democratic elements.
Thinkers like Fazlur Rahman argued that the Quranic injunction for mutual consultation provided a foundation for developing democratic institutions in Muslim societies.
Parray explores the complex relationship between Islam and democracy – not as fixed, monolithic entities, but as dynamic concepts shaped by context and interpretation.
Shura and Democracy
Offering a comprehensive overview of several prominent 21st-century Muslim thinkers’ perspectives on the compatibility between Islam and democracy, the book examines the views of scholars like Mohamed Fathi Osman, Israr Ahmed, Asghar Ali Engineer, Wahiduddin Khan, Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Khurshid Ahmad, Muhammad Khalid Masud, Rachid Ghannoushi, Abdulaziz Sachedina, and Abdolkarim Soroush.
Many argue that shura provides an Islamic basis for representative governance and popular participation. However, there are nuanced differences in how far one can take this argument.
Some scholars like Fathi Osman view democracy as the best contemporary application of shura. Others like Israr Ahmed advocate for a more limited form of democracy constrained by Islamic law. The book reveals an ongoing intellectual struggle to define an “Islamic democracy” that upholds both religious values and democratic norms.
Another notable aspect is how these thinkers engage with Western political philosophy. Rather than rejecting democracy as a foreign concept, many scholars attempt to trace its roots to Islamic civilisation or find parallels in Islamic tradition.
The diversity of views presented highlights the pluralism within contemporary Islamic thought on political issues. While there is broad agreement on the general compatibility of Islam and democracy, disagreements persist on the specific form this should take. Questions of popular sovereignty versus divine sovereignty remain contentious.
Parray’s analysis provides insight into how Muslim intellectuals are grappling with modernity and attempting to reform Islamic political thought. The ongoing nature of this intellectual discourse suggests that the relationship between Islam and democracy will remain a fertile area for scholarly inquiry and debate in the years to come.
Theoretical Gaps
Besides, the book examines the views of other several prominent 21st-century Muslim intellectuals, including Javed Ahmad Ghamidi, Abdelwahabel-Affendi, Louay M Safi, Khaled Abou El Fadl, Radwan Masmoudi, Muqtedar Khan, and Kamran Bokhari.
Comparing these 21st-century thinkers to earlier Muslim modernists of the 19th and 20th centuries, Parray notes that while earlier thinkers were primarily addressing their own societies, contemporary intellectuals are engaging in a more global discourse. This shift in audience and context has shaped how the Islam-democracy discourse has evolved.
While much theoretical work has been done on Islam-democracy compatibility, there remains a significant gap in translating this into practical political programmes or institutional designs. The lack of detailed proposals for how an “Islamic democracy” would function is a notable weakness in the discourse.
The book raises provocative questions about the nature of Islamic political theory and its relationship to Western democratic thought. To what extent are Muslim thinkers simply repackaging Western concepts in Islamic terminology? Or are they developing genuinely distinct Islamic models of democracy? The answers remain unclear.
Beyond Compatibility
Parray navigates the terrain between compatibility and incompatibility arguments, ultimately proposing a more pragmatic and contextual approach to understanding this relationship. He emphasises that democracy is a contested concept with multiple interpretations, allowing room for Islamic perspectives to engage with and potentially reshape democratic ideals. He asserts how many contemporary Muslim scholars see no fundamental conflict between Islamic principles and core democratic values like consultation, accountability, and human dignity. The concept of shura emerges as a key bridging principle, interpreted by some as an Islamic precursor to democratic participation.
Avoiding simplistic conclusions, the book reveals the ongoing nature of this discourse. It argues that advocating for democracy within an Islamic framework should not be seen as a mere imitation of Western models but as a creative reinterpretation of Islamic principles in modern contexts.
Parray’s concluding reflections on the need to move beyond theoretical compatibility arguments to practical implementation raise crucial questions for future research and policy discussions. His call for Muslim scholars to develop concrete frameworks for “Islamic democracy” highlights an important frontier in Islamic political thought.
